Recycling of municipal waste

Setting the scene

The 7th EAP states that, by 2020, waste should be 'safely managed as a resource', 'landfilling [is] limited to residual (i.e. non-recyclable and non-recoverable waste)' and 'energy recovery [is] limited to non-recyclable materials' (EU, 2013). The overarching logic guiding EU policy on waste is the waste hierarchy, which prioritises waste prevention, followed by preparation for reuse, recycling, other recovery and finally disposal, including landfilling as the least desirable option. This briefing presents trends on the recycling of municipal waste. An improvement in the proportion of waste that is recycled indicates that waste management is moving up the waste hierarchy. Recycling allows the generation of more value from resources and creates jobs. It can also reduce the demand for raw materials and the environmental impacts associated with meeting this demand (AIRS_PO2.1, 2017).

Policy targets and progress

The EU has introduced multiple waste policies and targets since the 1990s. These include strategies, such as the Thematic Strategy on the Prevention and Recycling of Waste (EU, 2005), and framework legislation such as the Waste Framework Directive (EU, 2008). The Waste Framework Directive sets a target of 50 % of municipal waste to be prepared for reuse or recycled by 2020 in EU Member States, for at least four categories (i.e. paper, glass, metals, plastics) of waste. Countries can choose from four alternative calculation methods to measure progress towards the target (EU, 2011).

In December 2015, the European Commission published 'Closing the loop — An EU action plan for the circular economy' (EC, 2015), also known as the Circular Economy Package. The package sets out a large number of initiatives and proposes new targets: 60 % of municipal waste to be recycled and prepared for reuse by 2025 and 65 % by 2030. These targets are based on just one calculation method (similar to the one used in Figures 1 and 2 of this briefing), although some countries have the option of altering the timescale.

As can be seen in Figure 1, the overall rate of recycling (material recycling, composting and digestion) for the EU increased from 31 % in 2004 to 45 % in 2015. The increase was from 28 % to 40 % if data from non-EU, EEA member countries (Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland and Turkey) is added to the aggregated EU country data. This improvement is a combination of a reduction in the amount of municipal waste generated and an increase in the total quantity undergoing material recycling, composting and digestion. This increase is viewed as one of the success stories of environmental policy in Europe so far (EEA, 2016a).

Around two thirds of the progress in enhanced recycling rates between 2004 and 2015 was primarily because of more material recycling. Increased composting and digestion was responsible for the remaining third (EEA calculation based on Eurostat, 2017a).

Figure 1. Proportion of municipal waste treated by different methods, EU

Note:
The treatment shares relate to waste generated. Recycling of municipal waste includes material recycling and composting/anaerobic digestion and might also include preparing for reuse. Data for 2004-2006 exclude Croatia. 'Other' includes, inter alia, mass losses during pre-treatment, storage and waste generated but not collected.

Figure 1 shows the trend in municipal waste recycling in the context of other municipal waste treatment methods. It is apparent that, as a whole, the EU is moving away from landfilling but that the share of incineration is also growing, with a 52 % increase between 2004 and 2015, compared with a 47 % increase for recycling (including composting and digestion).

Country level information

Despite high (and sustained) levels of municipal waste recycling in some countries and strong improvement in many others, as shown in Figure 2, the low rates of recycling and slow progress made in some countries, suggest that not every country will achieve the Waste Framework Directive target by 2020.

Figure 2. Municipal waste recycling rate (including composting and digestion) by country 

Note: The recycling rate is calculated as the percentage of municipal waste generated that is recycled, composted and anaerobically digested, and might also include preparing for reuse. Changes in reporting methodology mean that 2015 data are not fully comparable with 2004 data for Austria, Cyprus, Malta, Slovakia and Spain. 2005 data were used instead of 2004 data for Poland because of changes in methodology. On account of data availability, instead of 2004 data, 2003 data were used for Iceland, 2007 data for Croatia, and 2006 data for Serbia; and instead of 2015 data, 2014 data were used for Portugal and 2012 data for Ireland. 2015 data for Cyprus, Germany, France, Luxembourg, Poland, Slovenia, Spain and Turkey are estimates. Turkish recycling data include only composting/anaerobic digestion. 

There were large differences in performance among those countries with the highest and lowest recycling rates. Germany, Austria, Belgium, Switzerland, the Netherlands and Slovenia recycled at least half of their municipal waste in 2015. The highest increases in recycling rates between 2004 and 2015 occurred in Poland, Slovenia, Lithuania, Italy, Latvia, Czech Republic, United Kingdom and Hungary, ranging from 38 (Poland) to 20 (Hungary) percentage points. Overall, in 16 out of 32 countries, the increase in recycling rates was at least 10 percentage points during this period. However, in nine countries the proportion of recycled municipal waste barely changed. In Turkey, Malta, Austria, Belgium, Spain, Estonia, Sweden, Switzerland and the Netherlands the increase was fewer than 5 percentage points). Comparability of 2004 and 2015 data is limited for Austria, Cyprus, Malta, Slovakia and Spain because of methodological improvements in data collection.

The recycling rates shown in Figure 2 cannot be used to assess EU Member States' progress against the target of 50 % of waste to be prepared for reuse and recycling set by the Waste Framework Directive, because Member States can choose between four different methods to calculate compliance with the target (EU, 2011). Figure 2 shows recycling rates calculated following the most demanding method, i.e. recycled and composted/digested municipal waste as a share of total generated municipal waste.

There is a clear link between increasing recycling rates and declining rates of landfilling. In countries with high municipal waste recycling rates, landfilling is declining much faster than recycling is growing, as waste management strategies usually move from landfilling towards a combination of recycling and incineration, and in some cases also mechanical–biological treatment (MBT) (EEA, 2013). 

Almost without exception, the countries that are performing better in terms of recycling have a wider range of measures and instruments in place than the poorer performing countries. Measures have included landfill bans on biodegradable waste or non-pre-treated municipal waste; mandatory separate collection of municipal waste types, especially biowastes; and economic instruments such as landfill and incineration taxes and waste collection fees that strongly encourage recycling (such as pay-as-you-throw schemes) (EEA, 2016b). Producer responsibility, binding recycling targets and obligations to make separate collections have certainly also played a role. Although the key drivers behind better municipal waste management are clearly EU and national policies and targets, regional and local policies within countries also play a significant role (EEA, 2015).

Outlook beyond 2020 

The 7th EAP describes a number of steps that are required to achieve its objective of waste being managed as a resource. The Circular Economy Package (EC, 2015), includes a number of proposed targets and measures beyond 2020, which can move the EU towards this objective:

• a common EU target of preparing 65 % of municipal waste for reuse and recycling by 2030;
• a common EU target of preparing 75 % of packaging waste for reuse and recycling by 2030;
• a binding landfill target to reduce landfill to a maximum of 10 % of municipal waste by 2030;
• a ban on landfilling of separately collected waste;
• the promotion of economic instruments to discourage landfilling;
• simplified and improved definitions and harmonised calculation methods for recycling rates throughout the EU;
• concrete measures to promote reuse and stimulate industrial symbiosis — turning one industry's by-product into another's raw material;
• economic incentives for producers to put greener products on the market and support recovery and recycling schemes (e.g. for packaging, batteries, electrical and electronic equipment and vehicles).

The success of these targets and measures will be key to the medium- to long-term prospects for achieving an innovative circular economy in which nothing is wasted, as envisaged by 2050 in the 7th EAP.

About the indicator 

This indicator focuses on the recycling of municipal waste. Despite the fact that it represents only around 10 % (Eurostat, 2017b) of total waste generation in the EU, municipal waste is very visible and its reduction has the potential to reduce environmental impact, not only in the consumption and waste phases but also over the whole life cycle of the products consumed. Municipal waste consists to a large extent of waste generated by households, but it may also include similar wastes generated by small businesses and public institutions that are also collected by municipalities.

Recycling of waste is defined as any recovery operation by which waste materials are reprocessed into products, materials or substances, whether for the original or other purposes. It includes the reprocessing of organic material (e.g. by composting or digesting) but does not include energy recovery and reprocessing into materials that are to be used as fuels or for backfilling operations (Eurostat, 2015).

The recycling rate is calculated as the percentage of municipal waste generated that is subsequently recycled (including composting and digesting). There are limitations in the comparability of data between countries and over time. There are also variations in what countries classify as municipal waste and, in some cases, these definitions have changed over time. In addition, there is also variation in the calculation method, for example whether or not the weight of material collected but discarded during the recycling process is included and how inputs and outputs of pre-treatment are allocated.

Finally, the indicator shows the recycling rate of municipal waste calculated using a consistent method, although Member States can choose between four different methods to monitor recycling rates in order to meet the target of 50 % of waste to be prepared for reuse and recycling (EEA, 2015).