Plastic in textiles: towards a circular economy for synthetic textiles in Europe

Consumption and production of synthetic textiles in Europe

The global consumption of synthetic fibres increased from a few thousand tonnes in 1940 to more than 60 million tonnes in 2018, and it continues to rise. Since the late 1990s, polyester has surpassed cotton as the fibre most commonly used in textiles. While the majority of synthetic textile fibres are produced in Asia, Europe stands out as the world’s largest importer of synthetic fibres by trade value (Birkbeck, 2020), and also produces and exports such fibres.

Estimates of textile consumption per person in Europe are uncertain, ranging from 9 to 27 kg per person (Beton, et al., 2014; Watson, et al., 2018; ETC/WMGE, et al., 2019; Šajn, 2019). It is estimated that, in 2017, European households consumed about 13 million tonnes of textile products (clothing, footwear and household textiles) (Stadler, et al., 2018). 

Over 70 % of synthetic textile fibres are processed into clothing and household textiles. The remainder is used for technical textiles (e.g. safety wear) and industrial uses (e.g. vehicles and machinery) (Ryberg, et al., 2017). Synthetic fibres are cheap and versatile, enabling the production of cheap, fast fashion and high-performance textiles for durable clothing. 

The EU production of synthetic fibres totalled 2.24 million tonnes in 2018: 1.78 million tonnes were imported, 0.36 million tonnes exported and 3.66 million tonnes consumed (Figure 1).

Figure 1. EU production, consumption and trade of synthetic fibers, 2018

Production and use of bio-based synthetic fibres is currently negligible (European Bioplastics 2020). 

More than half of the global fibre production is polyester, making it the most common synthetic fibre (55 million tonnes in 2018) (Textile Exchange, 2019). Polyester is a strong fibre and produced at a low price. It is used in a multitude of applications. Clothing accounts for a large share of its use, as a cheaper and thinner alternative to cotton. After polyester, nylon is the most common synthetic fibre. It is a strong fibre that is widely used in tights, carpets and umbrellas. In 2018, over 5 million tonnes of nylon fibre was produced (Textile Exchange, 2019).

In Europe, about one third of textile waste is collected separately, and a large part is exported for reuse or recycling abroad. While percentages vary between countries, about 60-70 % of all collected textiles are reused (locally or abroad), 10-30 % are recycled and 10-20 % are incinerated for energy recovery or landfilled (Watson, et al., 2020). Textiles that are not separately collected end up in mixed waste. Globally, it is estimated that only 0.06 % of all textile waste (typically cotton-rich products) is recycled into fibres for use in new textile products (Textile Exchange, 2020). Recycling of synthetic fibres is not observed at scale.An estimated 42 million tonnes of plastic textile waste was generated globally in 2015. This accounts for 13 % of all plastic waste, making textiles the third largest contributor to plastic waste generation (Geyer, et al., 2017). The total amount of textile waste generated annually in the EU is unknown.  

Environmental and climate impacts of synthetic fibres and textiles

The production and consumption of textiles generate environmental pressures and impacts such as greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions; air and water pollution; land, water and other resource use; and impacts related to the use of chemicals. The range of impacts depends on the fibre type (ETC/WMGE, et al., 2019). 

The production of synthetic fibres requires large amounts of energy and is a significant contributor to climate change and the depletion of fossil fuel resources. However, in contrast to cotton — the most common natural fibre — producing synthetic fibres does not require agricultural resources or the use of toxic pesticides or fertilisers (Sandin, et al., 2019). 

Thus, if a comparative assessment of overall impact on the environment and climate is extended beyond resource depletion and GHG emissions to include land use, water use and ecosystem impacts, it is not possible to make a straightforward comparison of different fibre types in terms of their overall environmental performance (Beton, et al., 2014). Different fibres clearly have different environmental and climate impacts, so which textile is deemed more advantageous depends on which impact one focuses on. Figure 2 below provides an overview of the environmental and climate impacts of textiles.

Figure 2. Environmental impacts across the life cycle of synthetic textiles

The specific relative environmental and climate impacts of the most common synthetic fibres and cotton can be compared, per kilogram of dyed, woven fabric, as shown in Figure 3. The synthetic fibre nylon has the highest impact per kilogram for climate change and fossil fuel use. For land use, water use, eutrophication and mineral resource scarcity, cotton has the highest impact per kilogram. A similar comparison can be made between polyester and cotton: the full life cycle of 1 kg of polyester fabric is estimated to be responsible for the release of more than 30 kg of carbon dioxide equivalent, while only around 20 kg are associated with cotton (Beton, et al., 2014). 

It is important to keep in mind that impacts also depend on the production volumes of the fibres and fabrics. For example, while the manufacturing of polyester uses less energy than nylon, its annual production rate is much higher resulting in higher overall impacts.

Figure 3. Comparison of the environmental impacts for the manufacturing of 1 kg of dyed, woven fabric 

Environmental effects are not only generated during the production of textiles. During use, the main environmental impacts are generated by domestic and/or industrial washing, drying and ironing. While these caretaking activities require a lot of energy and contribute to climate change, they also enable longer and more intensive product use, adding to the product’s lifespan. 

The importance of considering the entire life cycle becomes obvious when looking at the example of microplastics shed from synthetic textiles throughout their lifespan. Microplastics are a fairly recent issue of concern. They are a new topic of research and not included in typical life cycle analysis. Much is still to be learned about the magnitude of their impact on human health and the environment. 

Microplastics are shed from synthetic textiles throughout their life cycles: from fibre and fabric manufacturing, through use and washing to their final disposal, whether by landfilling, incineration or recycling. It is estimated that between 200 000 and 500 000 tonnes of microplastic fibres from textiles enter the marine environment each year (Sherrington, 2016; Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2017).

Towards a circular economy for synthetic fibres and textiles

In the 2020 circular economy action plan, the European Commission identified textiles as a priority product category with significant potential for circularity. The action plan recognises that ‘textiles are the fourth highest pressure category for the use of primary raw materials and water, after food, housing and transport, and the fifth for greenhouse gas emissions’ (EEA, 2019; EC, 2020b). The action plan envisages a comprehensive EU strategy for textiles aiming to ‘strengthen industrial competitiveness and innovation in the sector, boosting the EU market for sustainable and circular textiles, including the market for textile reuse, addressing fast fashion and driving new business models’. In 2019, the first Product Environmental Footprint Category Rules (PEFCR) for textile products (T-shirts) were developed (Elsen, et al., 2019; Pesnel, and Payet, 2019). 

In line with the 2020 circular economy action plan, this EEA briefing and its underpinning ETC/WMGE report highlight some pathways to make synthetic textile production and consumption more circular and sustainable. These are sustainable fibre choices, control of microplastic emissions and improved separate collection, reuse and recycling.

The COVID-19 crisis has led to a sudden but rapid decrease in consumer demand for textiles and consequential cash-flow problems and unemployment in the textiles sector. There are risks that these factors could slow down the shift to a more circular and sustainable textiles sector. At the same time, the crisis demonstrates the fragility of the current way of working and offers the momentum to fundamentally change the textiles system towards greater circularity, with positive economic and environmental outcomes. 

To achieve a circular and more sustainable textile system, while supporting economic recovery, a number of textile and clothing organisations have proposed a list of measures (Euratex, 2020; Policy Hub, and Boston Consulting Group, 2020).