High forest, Condroz, Belgium

Source: Walphot


INTRODUCTION

How forests are used and managed can significantly affect environmental quality. This chapter examines the changes in the nature of Europe's forests and in how they are used. It summarises how the associated activities and practices can result in impacts on the environment, both negatively and positively, and identifies the principal underlying driving forces influencing these changes, including such factors as policy, demand for wood and ownership patterns (see Box 23A).

There has been extensive loss of forest cover in Europe since the early post-glacial era 10 000 years ago, when an estimated 80 to 90 per cent (Delcourt and Delcourt, 1987) of Europe's land was forested. Deforestation was due partly to changing climatic conditions but was caused primarily by human activities such as land clearance for farming and the harvesting of forests for fuelwood and wood for building, shipping and mining material. The first important deforestation in Europe took place during the Roman period but the largest deforestation period ever in Central Europe occurred in the Middle Ages. In Central and Eastern Europe, however, vast primary forests were still present until the beginning of the twentieth century.

Today, forests cover about 312 million hectares, that is 33 per cent of Europe's land (see Chapter 3), from which 166 million hectares are located in the European part of the Russian Federation. This percentage ranges from 6 per cent in Ireland up to 66 per cent in Finland (see Map 23.1). Recent trends from different sources (UNECE /FAO, 1992a; see Statistical Compendium) indicate that there has been an increase of Europe's forest cover, in both area and volume, over the past 30 years (see Figure 23.1). In addition, the composition and use of many of Europe's forests have changed greatly.

In Europe, there are practically no forests that can be considered 'natural' or 'virgin' in the sense that there has been no human influence whatsoever (see Chapter 9). It is estimated that as little as 1 per cent of Europe's forests remain essentially untouched by humans and are still in their original, natural state (Dudley, 1992), most of it being in Russia. Even the Nordic subalpine birch woods, or the tundra or taiga of Russia, which are often thought of as untouched or virgin, have been subject to human impact. Therefore, most of the forests in Europe are the result of past use (or misuse) of the environment: in parts of the Mediterranean basin, for instance, fire and overgrazing have led to the appearance of a degraded brush vegetation. However, in the Iberian region (agro-forestry landscapes of the montados or dehesas (see Box 23B), or in Scandinavia, grazed deciduous woodlands are the result of sustainable landuses that have survived over the centuries, are rich in wildlife and nature, and are considered as harmonious landscapes which deserve protection (see Chapter 8). Although most European forest has been modified by human influence, changes are not necessarily for the worst. Forest is still one of the components of the European environment where human impact has been relatively slight and natural values dominate.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

In many cases, the ways in which forests are managed and used in Europe result in overall benefits for the environment, helping to preserve, and sometimes even increase, biodiversity and landscape value, in addition to their role in soil quality protection and water regulation. However, some practices, especially those associated with the intensive use of forests for large-scale pulp production, can have detrimental environmental impacts.

The environmental impacts reviewed below relate to ways in which forests are used and managed. However, forests are also vulnerable to impacts arising from other human activities not related to the direct use of forests. About 60 000 fires damage an average of 700 000 hectares of wooded land in Europe each year, and atmospheric pollution has caused extensive damage to forests in Germany and Scandinavia as well as in a number of Central and Eastern European countries, especially those of spruce (Picea abies) and fir (Abies alba) (see Chapter 34). In addition to obvious damage from gaseous emissions such as sulphur dioxide close to industrial concentrations, there is evidence to suggest that acidic deposition resulting mainly from SO2 and NOx emissions is harmful to tree growth, and actually stresses trees, making them more vulnerable to disease and other natural stresses such as adverse weather conditions, insects, fungi, nutrient deficiency and forest fire. In the next few decades forest ecosystems will potentially grow in steadily increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and possibly changed climates. Consequent changes in the structure of these ecosystems and in their water and nutrient requirements are likely to influence the impact on forests from climate changes and their sensitivity to pollutant stress (see Chapter 27).

The nature and extent of human impacts on forests, both desirable and undesirable, and the resulting various uses of forests, differ widely across Europe. For these reasons the data have been grouped in geographical regions showing similar behaviour (see Box 23A). The management of forests can, however, change with time (especially when forest uses change) because it is subject to influences such as world markets, technological progress and changes in society. Table 23.1 summarises the more significant environmental impacts associated with these different uses. Many of these impacts are linked to the modernisation practices associated with the management of forests for wood or pulp production. Such practices occur in most European countries but, except perhaps in the Nordic region, they are generally practised in only limited areas.

Nature and wildlife

As mentioned above, a managed forest is not necessarily a poor forest from an environmental perspective. Forests which are subject to non-intensive forms of management may have great value for biodiversity; for instance the impact of grazing and coppicing in mixed oak­beech forest enhances their evolution to the semi-natural oak­hornbeam forest which is much richer in species. Across much of Europe, forestry mostly contributes positively to preserving biodiversity and habitats. In some regions, however, the implementation of certain forestry practices and techniques for wood production has created the potential for negative impacts.

The use of ground preparation techniques and large-scale clear felling can have a dramatic impact on ground flora and fauna by displacing a wide range of species from the bare site. Many return as the new generation of forest grows but others cannot re-establish themselves before the trees are felled again.

It is common practice to thin productive coniferous stands. Numerous insects, fungi and lichens which rely on the presence of dying or dead trees have therefore become rare or have disappeared altogether. In addition, some productive coniferous species such as spruce have a thick canopy which limits light in the forest and undergrowth. Of particular concern is the loss or replacement of pristine forests in wet habitats, particularly those growing alongside rivers. These are habitats with high biodiversity, often supporting unique species or assemblages of flora and fauna. Draining such forests greatly enhances their timber productivity but at the same time eliminates their wetland character and thus many of the fauna and flora dependent upon them (see Chapter 9 and Box 23C).

Tree species themselves can be endangered because of the evolution of forest management and related changes towards more productive species or gene transfers. This is generally the case for oak (Quercus spp) and more specifically for the cork oak (Quercus suber), which shows a general die-back in most of its natural range (Iberian peninsula); black poplar (Populus nigra) is endangered because of fast modifications of its natural riparian habitats and uncontrolled hybridisations with Euramerican hybrids; wild Rosacea appear also threatened by changes in silvicultural regimes, from mixed deciduous forests to mono-species pure deciduous forests or conifer plantations (Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe, 1993a).

Soil

In Europe, forestry practices generally have few known negative impacts on soil quality and, where they do, it is mostly restricted to certain soils in those parts of Europe practising large-scale, mechanised forestry management.

Water pollution and resources

Forests play an important role in water regulation. The large-scale plantation or clear felling of large tracts of forest can dramatically alter the water regulation dynamics of the area, leading to excessive groundwater abstraction on the one hand or increased runoff and risk of floods on the other. Water resource problems have been reported (Adlard, 1987) in Portugal concerning certain fast-growing, water-demanding eucalyptus plantations where serious depletion of water reserves has occurred when tree roots reach the water table; this is the case in the dry zones of southern Portugal.

The use of fertilisers is practised to a significant degree only in Sweden, Portugal and the UK, and to a certain extent in Finland and Norway, and fertilised forests represent only 0.3 per cent of total forest area in Europe. The amounts of fertilisers and pesticides used in forestry have decreased appreciably in recent years in the Nordic region. In Finland and Sweden, for example, fertilising forest reached its peak in the 1970s, when for each country some 20 000 tonnes of nitrogen fertiliser was applied annually from the air, dropping to less than 2000 tonnes in both countries in the early 1990s (EFMA, 1992; Bernes, 1993). The quantities and application rates used are relatively small when compared to those of agriculture (Table 23.2).

Landscapes

When monoculture is introduced, forests become more uniform, affecting the landscape. When a forest is drained or felled, landscape is also greatly changed. Large clear felled sites, particularly in hilly areas, can be seen from long distances. To many people, such sites are unattractive and seen as scars or wounds on the landscape. Blankets of straight-lined evergreen monoculture plantations reduce the scenery value of landscape. Examples, including the replacement of heathlands with spruce plantations in some parts of Western Europe, and grazing land with eucalyptus plantations in areas of Southern Europe, are still common.

In addition to these changes brought about by technological developments and the pressure to increase fast production, there are also changes that follow from modifications in forest uses (abandonment of traditional practices such as coppicing for fuelwood or grazing) and in land ownership or management responsibility (the balance of public and private).

CHANGES IN EUROPEAN FORESTS AND FORESTRY

This section examines the changes in the nature of Europe's forests and how they are used and managed. The changes in the underlying driving forces which affect the way forests are used and managed, such as demand for wood, government policy and ownership patterns, are identified and reviewed. The way in which changes in underlying driving forces have translated into changes in forestry practices and techniques, are examined, and the implications for the environment assessed.

The nature of forestry in Europe

There have been important changes in the nature of Europe's forests and in the ways in which they have been used over the last few decades. Many of these changes are regional in nature, with broad differences evident between Nordic, Western, Eastern and Southern regions of Europe.

Overall, Europe's forest area has increased by over 10 per cent (see Fig 23.1) since the early 1960s. Most of this increase is accounted for by the Southern and Western regions, in spite of forest cover remaining stable or decreasing in many countries from the Eastern region and the former USSR due to overexploitation of forest resources. This increase is due partly to the afforestation of poor soils unsuitable for agriculture, traditionally used for rough grazing, and partly to the afforestation or spontaneous invasion of abandoned agricultural land. Large-scale afforestation and reforestation have occurred in several of the Atlantic seaboard countries (eg, 600 000 ha of eucalyptus plantations in Portugal) through encroachment of trees in marginal agricultural land and the abandonment of coppices for fuelwood. Many Alpine and other mountain areas have been affected, with the consequent disappearance of the former farmed landscape. In certain parts of Europe, especially in poorer areas of the Mediterranean, whole rural villages have been largely abandoned as the traditional farm economy has broken down and trees have invaded the whole landscape. Accompanying this overall increase in forest cover, however, has been a drastic change in the composition and use of some of Europe's forest area.

Much attention is focused on the split between coniferous and broadleaved forest because of concern over the replacement of broadleaved forest with monoculture, often of exotic, coniferous forest. The proportion of coniferous species in the total has remained almost constant, at about 60 per cent for Europe as a whole since the early 1950s (Kuusela, 1993). However, this proportion is due partly to needs of the timber industry and, without the intervention of human activities, deciduous tree cover would be considerably higher. Certain countries, however, have witnessed significant changes. Denmark, Ireland, the UK, The Netherlands, Belgium and Bulgaria have all increased by over 10 per cent the proportion of their exploitable forest, which is accounted for mainly by afforestation with coniferous trees and not necessarily by the replacement of existing broadleaved or mixed forests with evergreen species. In the pan-European survey on forest condition in Europe (CEC/UNECE, 1993), within the 184 million hectares of forest covered by the survey, 113 different species have been recorded and 6 species only accounted for two thirds of all trees: Pinus sylvestris (24 per cent), Picea abies (23 per cent), Fagus sylvatica (9 per cent), Pinus pinaster (4 per cent), Quercus robur (4 per cent), and Quercus ilex (3 per cent). This is illustrated in Map 23.2.

About half (49 per cent) of Europe's forest is privately owned, ranging from farmers with small holdings of woodland to large private companies, but there are large variations between the different regions of Europe (see Figure 23.2). In many Central and Eastern European countries all the forests fall into the public domain, while the share of private ownership exceeds 70 per cent in many countries, such as Austria, Denmark, France, Norway and Portugal. The division of responsibility and the sheer number of decision makers with differing objectives has profound implications for any government's ability to guide the practices adopted by owners. Not all private owners make use of professional guidance and technical assistance but they are usually under some kind of supervision by public authorities. The importance given to wood production in forest management varies considerably between public and private sectors in different countries. In some countries, such as Belgium, Greece, Luxembourg, Poland, the UK, and the former Yugoslavia, wood production (fuelwood and industrial roundwood) is given far more importance in public forests than in most private ones, while in other countries, such as Denmark, Finland, Italy and Sweden, it is the opposite. Priorities of public forest administrations are also very different from country to country. Only a few countries have financial goals and ensure that marketable goods and services are given special weight in forest management.

Many of the changes in forest cover and composition, particularly in Northern and Western regions, can be linked to modifications in the ways in which forests are managed (or not) for the production of wood. This in turn reflects trends in international trade and the demand for greater availability of cheaper wood, wood-based products and paper, but also in the cost of personnel, the development of new technology, and changes in uses. This has led to significant increases (see below) in the yield, labour productivity and profitability of wood-production forestry on the one hand, and to abandonment of coppices and other wooded land on the other.

At the same time, society's growing awareness of the other values and functions of forests, particularly in Northern Europe, has led to the reappraisal of many of the modern forestry practices associated with wood production, and is beginning to influence how forests are managed, what they are managed for, and thus the nature of forests and forestry itself (UK Forestry Commission, 1989). In many places, however, there is a tradition of a more multi-function silviculture, where cutting is selective and natural generation allowed.

The Nordic region

The Nordic region has witnessed a significant shift towards the industrialisation or 'intensification' of the management and forestry techniques used for wood-production forestry. This has involved the mechanisation of the planting and harvesting of trees, the use of fast-growing conifers but also broadleaved species such as birches (Betula spp) planted in monoculture crops, to be clear felled at regular intervals. Fertilisers are also used to increase productivity, and applications, mainly of nitrogen, occur every 8 to 10 years. However (as in Norway in 1992), the fertilised forest area has been drastically reduced recently. The application of lime is often practised in areas where atmospheric pollution is contributing to forest degradation. In some cases this had led to a change in the composition of forest and to a reduction in biodiversity and landscape value.

Intensive silviculture and forest improvement practices, however, tend to be limited to those areas of forests owned and controlled by the large forestry companies or to some public-owned forests. In Sweden approximately half the exploitable forest area is controlled by companies, with forest holdings averaging 313 000 ha for private companies and 145 500 ha for state companies. Much of the remaining area is managed by numerous private farmers, with average forest holdings of just 53 ha, who apply more mixed and less intensive silviculture practices. In Norway and Finland a much greater proportion of forest is managed by private farmers with holdings typically under 50 ha.

Western and Eastern regions

Following the extensive replacement of mixed forest by plantations (especially in German-speaking countries in the latter part of the nineteenth century) there has been a more cautious application of modern forestry methods in the Western and Eastern regions of Europe, combined with a recognition of the need for greater environmental concern. As a result mixed species forest is more common and in certain areas management is extensive because of poor access and low wood values. Nevertheless some areas, particularly in France, Germany, the former USSR, Poland, Romania and the Czech and Slovak republics, are still subject to intensive high wood production practices. The use of fertiliser is rare (mainly in Portugal and the UK). In the UK, applications of mainly phosphorus and potassium are made when planting young trees, and there is only one fertiliser application for the whole rotation to remediate soil deficiencies. Recently, applications of lime, phosphate, potash and also magnesium have been used in some parts of Germany to improve the vitality of the trees.

The diversity of ownership categories and of the resulting styles of management found in Western Europe may, on balance, have been an advantage for the environment, in contrast to the position in many of the countries which had centrally planned economies. Average size of holdings in the latter vary between just under 2000 ha in Hungary to just over 300 000 ha in the former USSR (see Statistical Compendium).

The Southern region

With the exception of some parts of Spain and Portugal, much of Southern Europe has witnessed the abandonment of many traditional forestry practices. Unable to compete with cheap imports from the highly productive Nordic and Eastern regions, this area has witnessed a steady decline in the management and use of its forests for wood production, coupled with a trend towards the abandonment of traditional practices such as coppicing for firewood and the collection of barks, resins, acorns and tannin. On average, the productivity of Mediterranean forests is low because of the hot, dry summers. Many forests have become neglected or abandoned, increasing fire risk and fire damage; grazing may have been another contributing factor. In Italy, for example, the production of roundwood (that is all wood obtained from removals) fell by 21 per cent between 1965 and 1989. From a financial point of view, Mediterranean forests are costly to manage and the part that forestry plays in GNP is relatively small (Marchand, 1990). However, the role of forest and shrubland in these areas for soil protection and nature and landscape conservation, together with the incomes generated by non-forest functions, is of major importance in Southern Europe. Rural depopulation and related abandonment of agricultural land in the South is responsible for spontaneous tree encroachment taking place. Afforestation of abandoned land is difficult partly because the average size of the former fields is too small: 35 per cent of farm holdings are less than 1 hectare in Italy, 31 per cent in Portugal, 26 per cent in Greece and 14 per cent in Spain (see Chapter 22).

Wood and wood products ­ demand and supply

Much of the intensification of wood production practices can be linked to the need to meet the changing demand for wood, in terms of both volume and type. In Europe, the apparent consumption of roundwood, which gives an indication of the overall demand, has increased slowly (28 per cent) over the last 25 years (Figure 23.3). Consumption in the Western region has increased steadily since 1965 by a total of 30 per cent. In the Eastern region consumption peaked around 1985 but has since been declining.

Much of the wood supply needed to meet this increasing demand has been provided by increasing production (see below) in Europe itself. Some of it, however, has been met by imports (Figure 23.4). Net imports of roundwood for the whole of Europe, for example, increased by 25 per cent between 1965 and 1989; the Eastern region is the only part of Europe where imports have decreased during the same period (see Statistical Compendium).

The increased level of imports is not just a result of demand in Europe outstripping domestic supply. In recent years, the amount of wood being felled from Europe's forests has fallen significantly below the annual rate of increase in its wood stock (net annual increment), meaning there is a surplus availability of wood for harvesting (Figure 23.5). In Russia, however, the annual fellings are higher than the annual production of wood. This is due to several factors: from the management side, there is a tendency in traditional silviculture for precaution felling favouring the accumulation of growing stock; recently, there has been an excess of wood supply coming from the harvesting of trees affected, for example, by air pollution, insect attacks, or uprooted after the exceptional storms from 1987, 1989 and 1990 (in 1990, the production of roundwood in West Germany was of 73 million m3 or nearly twice as much as 1989 due to wind throws); or from the huge influx of wood from the Eastern region, especially from the former USSR (Box 23D), to Western markets. These factors have driven down prices which in turn affect the way some areas of Europe's forests are managed; indeed, forest owners tend to delay the frequency of felling, increasing the stock and affecting future prices.

Of Europe's total roundwood production of about 368 million m3 in 1989 (data from 1990 were not taken into account because of the exceptional harvesting due to wind throw in Germany), 31 per cent is from the Nordic region, 21 per cent from the Eastern region, 16 per cent from the Southern region and 32 per cent from the Western region. The major uses of wood (see Figure 23.6) are as sawnwood and panel products used in the construction and furniture industries, as paper and board for use in packaging, printing and writing, and as firewood or charcoal largely for household heating and cooking. The Nordic region produces 45 per cent of the total wood for pulping while the Western region produces 36 per cent of the total industrial roundwood other than pulp and 35 per cent of the fuelwood. Of the many products concerned, only charcoal and firewood have experienced a sharp and consistent decline over recent decades (see Statistical Compendium), but in the Southern region they are still a major energy source.

One characteristic of wood industries' demand is the requirement for large quantities of products that do not vary in quality and are obtainable at the most competitive prices possible. The nature of this demand has basic effects on how forests are managed for wood production, the most advantageous forests being those providing vast areas of the same kinds of wood that can be easily harvested using mechanical means. Hence the trend towards clear felling practices accompanied by the planting of large monoculture stands and the introduction of fast-growing tree species.

Forestry productivity

Increased demand for cheaper and more plentiful supplies of wood in Europe over the last few decades has been met largely by increases in yields and the efficiency of production in terms of labour and capital inputs. Europe is the world's second highest industrial roundwood producing region. Total production of roundwood in Europe was about 368 million m3 in 1989, an increase of over 18 per cent since 1965. The biggest increase over the period was in the Western region (43 per cent), compared with 13 per cent in the Eastern region, 11 per cent in the Nordic region and 3 per cent in the Southern region (Figure 23.8). Some of this increased production has been achieved simply by expanding the total area of forest, but much is the result of increased productivity in most parts of Europe.

The net annual increment (NAI) in exploitable forest is an indicator of annual production and productivity. In 1990, NAI was 564 million m3 overbark for Europe and has steadily increased since 1950 (see Figure 23.5). There is a considerable range of NAI per hectare which can be related largely to climatic and soil conditions (Figure 23.9). Thus, Greece has a net increment per hectare of exploitable forest of 1.4, Norway2.7 and Finland 3.6, while Austria shows 6.6, former Czechoslovakia 6.9 and Ireland 8.4. Species differences account for some of the range of values found; France with much broadleaved forest grows 5.3 m3/ha, while East Germany produces 6.7. Recent studies have attributed the important recorded increase of productivity in the long term to elevated levels of atmospheric CO2 and nitrogen deposition from the atmosphere (Becker and Serre-Bachet, 1992; see Box 23F). The critical aspect is not so much the rate of volume production per unit as the efficiency with which wood-producing silviculture and harvesting are combined to keep down the costs of maintaining and exploiting the forest.

Besides site conditions, the increase in productivity has been achieved in a number of ways including the introduction of faster growing and more disease resistant trees, improved management techniques, including in some cases the use of fertilisers and pesticides, some mechanisation (for cutting, log removal, ground preparation, planting, etc), and in addition fertilisation through atmospheric pollution (see Chapter 34). A number of these practices, however, have the potential to impact on the environment (see above).

In Table 23.3, the participation of the different regions in the area and production of exploitable forest is summarised. The Nordic region (Finland, Sweden and Norway) has 35 per cent of Europe's exploitable forest but 25 per cent of the growing stock. Growth is relatively modest, averaging only about 3.5 m3/ha/year. The Western region (10 countries) has 21 per cent of the exploitable forest area (France and West Germany alone accounting for 70 per cent of the total), 30 per cent of the growing stock and an average growth of 6.7 m3/ha/year. The Eastern region accounts for 27 per cent of Europe's exploitable forest area and 31 per cent of the growing stock.

It is difficult to assess employment trends in wood-production forestry because forestry is often aggregated with agricultural employment statistics. For those few countries that do track segregated forestry employment levels, the trends suggest a steady decline in the number of people employed, indicating a continuous increase in labour productivity and specialisation.

Technological progress

If technological progress has been a vital factor in the rapid productivity improvements over the last three to four decades, its extension has been rather limited compared with other sectors. Indeed, in many forests of Europe (Mediterranean forests, mountain forests, small woodlands), growing conditions are difficult, accessibility is often limited, and the use of relatively costly operating techniques is not profitable.

Technological progress has allowed considerable changes in how forests are managed and associated practices. The advent of the power saw (in itself the cause of the only improvement in labour productivity in forestry for centuries) and subsequently the introduction of machines carrying out the full set of harvesting operations (from felling, through pruning and cross-cutting, to extraction to roadside) all contributed to significant productivity improvements.

This trend towards increased mechanisation has greatly encouraged and facilitated many of the intensive wood-production practices witnessed in certain parts of Europe, giving rise to actual environmental problems as discussed earlier in this chapter. However, increasing awareness of such problems is leading to the design of machines more favourable to the environment and to changing the way in which the machines are used.

Policy and planning activities related to forest functions

Because of the long-term return of wood production, sustainable management of forests has traditionally been the primary objective of most foresters in Europe. For most of the non-wood functions of the forest, supply and demand are generally not regulated by the market mechanism, and, because forests are easily degraded and destroyed unless given appropriate protection from careless cutting, fire and grazing, most countries have established national forestry policies and legal controls on forest management.

At the national level strict laws usually apply to woodland clearance, and restocking is required after felling. These requirements are more stringently applied in montane forests, where poor management puts at risk not only the forest but also lower-lying land which may be flooded and subject to deposition of eroded soil. Where afforestation (that is tree planting on non-forest land, which extends the area of the forest) is concerned, governments commonly determine the location and type of new planting. In addition to these blanket controls, more attention is being paid to the detail of operations conducted and the form of forest they promise to create (UK Forestry Commission, 1989). In the EU, attempts to promote tree planting by private owners on agricultural land (as a way to reduce agricultural surpluses) have not been very successful. Heavy subsidisation levels are required to attract private owners because of the long rotation periods traditionally followed in Europe (of 100 years or more).

A number of countries are also adopting specific measures to tackle issues of particular national concern. These include concerns about:

All countries have taken action in recent decades to limit or prohibit practices which have deleterious effects on the environment. Most of the changes made have concerned the conduct of forest operations currently used. In addition, increasing attention is being paid to the broad matter of forest design, namely the type of silviculture being adopted and the arrangement of the trees from both visual and ecological standpoints. Many countries operate strict measures through the local landuse planning authority before afforestation schemes may be approved.

At the international level, coordination of forestry policy has been going on for a long time. The International Union of Forestry Research Organisations (IUFRO) was established in 1890 with the main objective of promoting international cooperation in forestry research. More recently, in June 1993 the second Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe was held in Helsinki, where 45 participating countries signed-up to a set of guiding principles regarding the sustainable management of Europe's forests and conservation of their biodiversity (Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe, 1993b). Based on the recommendations from the Rio Conference, a list of six pan-European criteria and 27 quantitative indicators for the sustainable management of forests has recently been adopted by the signatory states.

Forestry practices

As already mentioned, most forests in Europe are the expression of past and present economic activity. But the character of this interaction ­ especially forest uses ­ is changing due to a number of forces:

As forests are also part of the environment, they can be affected by broader environmental problems, such as air pollution and fires, which in turn affect their management (for example, liming and thinning). These aspects are discussed in more detail in Chapter 34.

Intensification of roundwood-production forestry practices

The exploitation of Europe's forests for the production of roundwood has traditionally been seen as one its most important functions. Indeed for a number of European countries the harvesting and production of wood-based products represents a major national industry. It accounts for more than 4 per cent of industry export earnings in Finland, Austria, Norway, Portugal, Sweden and former Yugoslavia (Dudley, 1992). In the Western and Eastern regions of Europe, the need for timber led to the conversion of coppice grown for fuelwood to high forests.

The industrial revolution strongly affected silviculture in Europe. Exotic tree species were planted to increase the production of industrial wood on poor soils, not suitable for agriculture. The sensitivity of forest ecosystems growing on poor soils has been enhanced during the last decades due to the effects of air pollutants. Recently, the shift towards modernisation of silviculture methods in some parts of Europe has brought with it a number of implications for the environment, including issues of biodiversity, landscape value, soil quality, water regulation and recreational value. Mechanisation favours infrastructure development, uniform plantations, clear felling, plantations in rows and removal of dead wood. When forests are drained or felled, landscape is greatly changed. When monoculture replaces mixed forest regimes, forests become more uniform.

Accurate data on the extent to which clear felling and replanting is practised in Europe is not generally available. However, in the Nordic regions where pulpwood and saw timber productions are important economic activities, large-scale clear felling and replanting are widely practised (Bernes, 1993). In southern Finland, the share of total forest area made up of birch woods (indigenous deciduous) fell from 15 per cent in the early 1950s to barely 7 per cent 20 years later. However, in recent years, steps have been taken to reverse this process and now almost one in every ten trees planted in Finland is a birch (Bernes, 1993). In Denmark, because of afforestation, just over half the country's total area of forest is now made up of introduced species, primarily the Norway spruce (Picea abies) and Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis), the latter originating from North America. Of a total of some 70 000 km2 of wet forest originally present in Finland at the beginning of this century, more than two-thirds (some 50 000 km2) have been drained (Bernes, 1993).

The situation in the Eastern region of Europe is very heterogeneous. In the Baltic States, forestry is still largely carried out in a way which Western European foresters regard as inefficient and outdated. Furthermore, the majority of wetlands in these countries are still undrained, thus preserving the natural diversity of species of these habitats from afforestation.

In Southern and Western regions, mainly Portugal and the UK fertilise forests, as mentioned above (Table 23.2), to increase production. The application rates are negligible in comparison with those of agriculture and are not likely to pose a serious threat to the environment.

In Europe as a whole, mono-specific plantations are often used for afforestation, and geographic transfers of forest reproductive materials are frequent. A few highly productive species, each represented by a few improved varieties, are commonly used for reforestation. Consequently, local races and ecotypes can disappear or hybridise with the introduced forest reproductive materials. Additional threats come from infrastructure developments (such as urbanisation, dams, roads and recreation areas) and changes of the atmosphere and climate.

Recreation

The importance of forests as a source of recreation has gained increasing attention in Europe over the last two decades. Indeed, forests provide many of the non-material benefits needed by people, especially those living with the stress of a modern industrialised economy. In general, however, comprehensive data on visits to forests are rare and compiled only at long intervals. Few data on possible indicators, such as visitor frequency to forests, or what proportion of forests are managed deliberately for recreation, have been collected. In the Nordic countries, where people have the right to visit forests regardless of who owns them, it is estimated that at least 400 million visits a year are made to their forests (Bernes, 1993).

The impacts of recreational activities act to both the benefit and the detriment of forests. In general they tend to favour, and thus preserve, forests with a high level of biodiversity (for instance mixed woodlands and semi-natural forests), encouraging the conservation and protection of wildlife, and helping to limit the loss of forest to urban spread and road building. However, if visitor pressure becomes excessive, problems of soil erosion can occur along and adjacent to footpaths, wildlife can be disturbed (especially important during the breeding seasons), excessive damage to plants and tree saplings can occur from trampling underfoot and discarded waste can become a problem (see Chapter 25).

Beech coppice and bluebells,
Forest of Halles, Belgium
Source: Mark Roekaerts

Hunting

Hunting is a popular activity in a number of European countries (Chapter 25) and much of it is practised in forests or on land adjacent to forests as these provide the breeding, roosting and feeding grounds of much of the traditional game. The use and management of forests for hunting, however, has a number of implications for the environment: small woodlands (not more than 10 hectares) and shrublands are favoured; and buffer zones of spontaneous vegetation not spread with chemicals of at least 6 metres wide are maintained between forests and crops (in the UK).

Hunting can provide an incentive ­ often in the form of financial rewards derived from the fees paid for access rights by hunters ­ for forest owners to maintain mixed species forest and to resist pressures to allow the forest to be cleared or subject to intensive monoculture wood-production practices. However, it can also restrict access to the forest to other visitors, thus reducing its recreational and amenity value, and can lead to serious disturbances of other wildlife in the forest, and to tree damage, especially in young plantations from excessive game density and shooting. In Scotland for instance, red deer (Cervus elaphus) is considered as the main threat to the remains of the Caledonian forest (Pearce, 1993). The number of red deer has grown continuously over the past 200 years, encouraged by landowners wanting to attract revenue from stalkers, and because of the disappearance of the deer's natural predators.

As with many of the other non-wood forest functions, few data currently exist to help assess the level of importance attached to hunting and the extent to which it is practised in the different regions of Europe. A questionnaire-based survey conducted by UNECE and FAO (UNECE/FAO, 1992b) in 1990 found that hunting was listed as the second most important forestry function in Europe by the national forestry authorities. Countries of Eastern (Hungary, Poland), Southern (Italy, Spain) and Western regions of Europe (France, Germany and Switzerland) attach a great deal of cultural importance to hunting, and for many small-scale private forest owners hunting represents an important, if not the biggest, source of income generated by their forests. In France and the UK (Scotland), hunting represents an important contribution to the local economy of some regions (Pinet, 1987).

Grazing

Historically, forests have long provided good grazing grounds for a number of domesticated animals including goats, pigs and deer. In all countries, however, the general trend over recent decades has been to abandon this practice. Nowadays, many European countries attach only a low importance to it (UNECE/FAO, 1992b) and many have laws to regulate or prohibit grazing in forests in order to protect them. However, in some countries, including Albania, Spain and Romania, grazing is important in more than 20 per cent of the forests (in Finland up to 80 per cent of the Lapland state-owned forest is grazed by reindeer).

The implications for the environment of grazing in forests are varied. A certain level of grazing by deer, wild boar, bears, etc, was always a natural element in the forest ecosystem. The practice of forest grazing has led to the decline of browsing-sensitive species and has favoured light-demanding and fruit-bearing tree species like oak to feed the animals. In Southern Europe, it was also used as a means to control undergrowth, therefore reducing fire risk. But grazing, if not well controlled, can also cause serious damage to trees, prevent the growth of new tree sprouts and lead to the compaction and erosion of soil. Such problems have occurred in areas of Greece and Bulgaria because of unrestrained grazing of domestic animals, particularly goats and sheep.

Conservation

Forests are an important reservoir of biodiversity and thus play a central role in the conservation of Europe's wildlife heritage. The growing awareness of conservation issues in European society, coupled with a realisation that much of Europe's virgin and semi-natural forest has already been lost, has encouraged many countries to protect part of their forests by creating national parks (see Chapter 9) and protected areas. In addition, specific regulations have been introduced to save trees located in wetlands and around lakes where rare birds and other animals breed. Such areas are typically managed with minimum interference and careful control on visitor/tourist pressure, including limited access to sensitive areas of the forest.

The protection and management of forests for conservation purposes is not necessarily incompatible with exploiting other forest functions such as wood production, provided the latter is achieved using low impact techniques such as selective cutting, minimum or careful use of heavy machinery, and no chemical inputs.

Protection of soil and water resources

In regions with a fragile soil, the forest often plays a vital protective role. This is particularly the case with soil that is sensitive to:

Pine forest of Les Landes, France
Source: C Steenmens

Forests also contribute to protection in mountain areas against natural hazards such as avalanches, falling stones and floods. In France, a study of the mountain forests in the Alps (400 000 ha) has shown that stands are getting old and damage through wind throw is increasing.

Forests have a major effect on water flow in catchment areas. The improved infiltration of water into the forest soil helps to replenish the groundwater. The quality of the water provided by a forest catchment area is generally excellent since erosion in the area is usually low. However, water with a low pH may come from forests which themselves have a litter with an acidic humus and poor decomposition characteristics. Forests also evaporate and transpire a great deal; any disadvantages of this greater water consumption by trees are usually offset by the benefits provided by forests, but in Southern Europe forests can create conflicts with demand for water resources (the problem of trees taking too much water and parching the land is particularly well known with eucalyptus).

Other products

Forests also provide a number of products other than wood. Such products include berries of different kinds, pine nuts, mushrooms, cork, game meat, honey and aromatic plants as well as Christmas trees, greenery for decorative purposes, aromatic and medicinal plants, resin and fodder. The importance and extent of harvesting of these various products in the different regions of Europe is difficult to assess because of lack of data. Nevertheless, for certain parts of Europe the significance of this forest function, at a local level, should not be overlooked. In Portugal the harvesting of oak bark to produce cork is a significant industry and provides Europe with 60 per cent of its cork. The harvesting of berries to sell as fresh produce or jams and other similar products supports a small cottage industry in many parts of Scandinavia, as does the harvesting of wild mushrooms in France. Although the collection of non-wood products will never constitute a major income, since labour costs are high, it can be important locally.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS